Dissecting cellulitis of the scalp (perifolliculitis capitis)

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Meet the patient

A 28-year-old Black man has spent two years with painful, boggy swellings on his crown that discharge pus from multiple openings and have left patches of permanent hair loss. He also has severe truncal nodulocystic acne. The bacterial cultures grow only coagulase-negative staphylococci.^[1]

Two exam questions are now live and both must be answered. What unifies his scalp and his chest? — the follicular occlusion tetrad, the single highest-yield fact on this topic. And what must you exclude before any retinoid or steroid? — tinea capitis with kerion, because treating a fungus with immunosuppression is the classic, defensible mistake.^[1][3]

Overview and definition

Dissecting cellulitis of the scalp (DCS) — also called perifolliculitis capitis abscedens et suffodiens and Hoffmann disease — is a rare, chronic, progressive, suppurative follicular disorder of the scalp in which occluded hair follicles rupture into the dermis, generating an intense neutrophilic and granulomatous inflammatory reaction that organises into abscesses and interconnected subcutaneous sinus tracts. The clinical result is a boggy, oedematous, boggy-nodular scalp discharging purulent or serosanguineous fluid through multiple surface openings, with progressive destruction of follicles and permanent scarring alopecia.^[1][3][5]

DCS does not exist in isolation for the examination candidate. It is the scalp member of the follicular occlusion tetrad, sharing a common pathophysiology with hidradenitis suppurativa (axillae and groins), acne conglobata (chest and back), and pilonidal sinus (natal cleft). Recognising this unifying concept is the single highest-yield fact on this topic, because the same triad of occlusion, rupture, and neutrophilic inflammation — and largely the same drugs — appear across all four conditions.^[1][3]

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Synonyms and naming

The eponymous and descriptive names are deliberately evocative, and a viva examiner may ask you to translate them: ^[1]

• Perifolliculitis capitis abscedens et suffodiens — Latin for "perifollicular inflammation of the head, with abscesses and tunneling (undermining)." The word suffodiens ("undermining") captures the interconnected sinus tracts beneath the scalp surface that are the morphological hallmark.
• Hoffmann disease — after the German dermatologist Hoffmann, who described it in the early 20th century (distinct from Hoffman-Purdy syndrome).
• Dissecting folliculitis — emphasises that the inflammation dissects (tunnels) through the subcutaneous tissue. ^[1]

Classification and the follicular occlusion tetrad

DCS has no universally adopted formal staging system of its own; in practice it is classified by severity and anatomical extent, and clinical decision-making borrows from the Hurley staging used in hidradenitis suppurativa (the sister disease in the tetrad). The most important conceptual classification for the exam is the follicular occlusion tetrad itself. ^[1]

The tetrad shares a common pathomechanistic sequence, and a candidate who can articulate it can answer almost any question on any of the four conditions: ^[1]

Severity framework (Hurley-adapted)

Because DCS lacks a dedicated grading scale, clinicians adapt the Hurley stages used for hidradenitis suppurativa: ^[1]

Epidemiology and risk factors

DCS is uncommon, and true population prevalence figures are not established because the disease is rare, under-recognised, and under-reported. What is consistent across series is a striking demographic signature. ^[1]

The disease overwhelmingly affects young Black men in the second to fourth decade, although it is described in women, in children, in Caucasians, and in older adults — atypical demographics should prompt confirmation with biopsy and exclusion of mimics, especially tinea capitis (kerion) in children.^[3][5]

Risk factors and associations: ^[1]

• Male sex and African ancestry — strong, reproducible associations; likely relate to hair follicle density, hair curvature, and sebum characteristics, though the precise mechanism is unproven.
• Family history / genetics — familial clusters are reported; rare families harbour loss-of-function mutations in gamma-secretase pathway genes (PSENEN, NCSTN, PSEN1), the same pathway implicated in familial hidradenitis suppurativa. This is a key molecular link explaining why the tetrad co-segregates in some kindreds.
• Follicular occlusion tetrad — coexistence with hidradenitis suppurativa, acne conglobata, or pilonidal sinus should be actively sought; one condition of the tetrad increases the odds of another.
• Obesity, smoking, and metabolic syndrome — established accelerants in hidradenitis suppurativa and reported in DCS case series; weight and smoking status should be addressed as part of management.
• Immunosuppression and HIV — DCS is reported with unusual severity in HIV-positive patients, and a new severe scalp process in an at-risk individual warrants HIV testing. ^[1]

Pathophysiology

The pathophysiology of DCS is the follicular occlusion sequence, identical in principle to hidradenitis suppurativa and acne conglobata. The candidate who can walk through this cascade at viva can defend the entire management ladder, because every drug class targets a step in it. ^[1]

The cascade, step by step

The hallmark morphological consequence is interconnected sinus tract formation — channels that dissect (hence "dissecting") through the subcutaneous tissue and connect multiple follicular units. Pressing on one nodule may express pus from a distant opening, a useful bedside confirmation of the diagnosis. Sinus tracts become lined by squamous epithelium, which is the substrate for later malignant change (see Complications).^[3][6]

Molecular and genetic basis

In a minority of patients, DCS is part of a familial follicular occlusion syndrome driven by loss-of-function mutations in the gamma-secretase complex — most often NCSTN (nicastrin), PSENEN (presenilin enhancer 2), and PSEN1 (presenilin 1). Gamma-secretase is a transmembrane protease that cleaves Notch and other substrates; impaired Notch signalling in the hair follicle is hypothesised to alter follicular keratinisation and immune homeostasis. The same gene family underlies familial hidradenitis suppurativa, which is why DCS and HS co-segregate in some families. This molecular link is high-yield for fellowship vivas and explains why a family history should be sought.^[2]

The role of bacteria

Bacterial infection is secondary, not primary: cultures are frequently sterile or yield skin commensals and opportunists (Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci, Proteus species, anaerobes, and occasionally Klebsiella or Pseudomonas). Antibiotics work predominantly through anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory mechanisms rather than by eradicating a causative organism — a fact that explains why tetracyclines help even when cultures are negative, and why the disease relapses when antibiotics are stopped.^[3][4]

Clinical presentation

DCS runs a chronic, relapsing, and progressive course over years to decades. The presentation is usually unmistakable once seen, but the candidate must be able to describe it precisely, distinguish it from mimics, and recognise atypical scenarios. ^[1]

Distribution

• Scalp vertex (crown) — the most common and earliest site.
• Occiput (posterior scalp) and nape of neck — frequent extension.
• Rarely the eyebrows, beard, axillae, groin, or chest (when these are involved, suspect overlap with the rest of the follicular occlusion tetrad).^[3]

Morphology and evolution

The disease evolves through characteristic stages: ^[1]

1. Early — multiple tender follicular papules and pustules on the vertex and occiput, easily mistaken for ordinary folliculitis.
2. Established — boggy, oedematous, doughy nodules and plaques that become fluctuant, forming abscesses. The scalp feels soft and depressible ("boggy") on palpation.
3. Sinus tract / discharge — interconnected subcutaneous channels discharge purulent, serosanguineous, or serous fluid from multiple surface openings; pressing one nodule may express pus from another (the "dissecting" hallmark). The appearance can be kerion-like and is often malodorous.
4. Fibrosis — bridging (keloidal) scars, tubular fibrotic bands, and permanent scarring alopecia; surviving follicles may show tufted hairs (multiple hairs emerging from a single opening).^[1][3]

Symptoms

• Pain and tenderness — often severe, the chief reason patients present.
• Purulent discharge and odour — socially distressing; patients may report soiled pillowcases and clothing.
• Pruritus and a sensation of scalp pressure.
• Psychological distress — depression, anxiety, social withdrawal, and reduced quality of life from pain, odour, discharge, and visible hair loss. ^[1]

Systemic features

Fever, malaise, and regional lymphadenopathy (occipital, posterior cervical) may accompany acute suppurative flares, but DCS is usually a localised disease and systemic upset should prompt a search for secondary infection or an alternative diagnosis. ^[1]

Examination of the tetrad

Because DCS is one quarter of the follicular occlusion tetrad, the focused examination always looks for the other members: inspect the axillae, groins, inframammary folds, buttocks, and natal cleft (hidradenitis suppurativa, pilonidal sinus), and the chest, back, and face (acne conglobata). Detecting an unsuspected tetrad partner changes the therapeutic ladder and supports the diagnosis. ^[1]

Differential diagnosis

The differential of a boggy, discharging scalp with hair loss is broad, and the high-yield discriminator is whether the process is follicular and suppurative (DCS), fungal (kerion), staphylococcal (furunculosis), or scarring alopecic. The examiner will probe the distinguishing features. ^[1]

Key discriminating points the examiner rewards: ^[1]

• DCS versus kerion — kerion is most often in children, is acute and unilateral, has broken hairs and lymphadenopathy, and is KOH/fungal-culture positive. DCS is in young adults, is chronic and bilateral, has sinus tracts discharging pus, and is culture-negative or commensal. Failing to exclude tinea before starting steroids or isotretinoin is a classic and serious error.
• DCS versus acne keloidalis nuchae (AKN) — AKN sits on the nape of the neck and low occipital hairline as firm keloidal papules; DCS dominates the vertex and occiput as boggy nodules and sinus tracts. They can coexist.
• DCS versus folliculitis decalvans (FD) — FD is a pustular folliculitis with tufted hair folliculitis but lacks the large boggy abscesses and sinus tracts of DCS.^[3]

Clinical and bedside assessment

Diagnosis is clinical and is made at the bedside on the characteristic morphology and demographic. A focused scalp examination documents: ^[1]

• Distribution and extent — map the involved scalp regions (vertex, occiput, nape); photograph for serial comparison.
• Number and type of lesions — papules, pustules, boggy nodules, abscesses, sinus openings.
• Sinus tract integrity — gentle pressure on one nodule to see if pus appears at a distant opening confirms subcutaneous interconnection.
• Scarring alopecia — extent of permanent hair loss; presence of tufted hairs.
• Lymphadenopathy — occipital and cervical nodes; tender nodes suggest secondary infection.
• Tetrad screen — axillae, groins, inframammary folds, natal cleft, chest, back. ^[1]

There is no pathognomonic blood test or imaging finding. Dermoscopy/trichoscopy may show perifollicular pustules, tufted hairs, keratin plugs, yellow crusts, and absence of follicular openings in scarred areas, supporting a cicatricial process, but it is adjunctive rather than diagnostic.^[3]

Investigations

DCS is a clinical diagnosis, and investigations are performed chiefly to exclude mimics, characterise secondary infection, and screen for systemic disease and complications before starting systemic therapy. ^[1]

Histopathology

The microscopic picture mirrors the pathophysiological cascade and is supportive rather than pathognomonic: follicular hyperkeratosis and occlusion, follicular rupture, a dense neutrophilic and granulomatous (foreign-body) infiltrate with giant cells around keratin and hair fragments, abscess formation, sinus tracts lined by stratified squamous epithelium, and progressive dermal fibrosis with follicular dropout. Biopsy is reserved for atypical presentations, refractory disease, or suspicion of malignant transformation.^[3][6]

Management — resuscitation and acute flares

DCS has no resuscitation phase in the usual sense (it is not a time-critical emergency), but acute suppurative flares with painful abscesses require prompt symptom-relieving intervention while definitive therapy is planned: ^[1]

• Analgesia — paracetamol and NSAIDs for pain; severe flares may require stronger analgesia.
• Incision and drainage of a tense, fluctuant abscess for pain relief and decompression — a temporising measure, not curative, because the underlying sinus tracts remain.^[1]
• Culture of pus at the time of drainage to guide antibiotic choice for secondary infection.
• Treat secondary infection with a short course of an anti-staphylococcal antibiotic (e.g. flucloxacillin, or vancomycin/linezolid if MRSA is suspected) guided by culture.^[3]
• Address red flags — any non-healing ulcer within a long-standing lesion must be biopsied to exclude squamous cell carcinoma before immunosuppression is escalated.^[6]

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Management — definitive and stepwise

No therapy is curative, and the goal is disease control, reduction of flares, preservation of hair, and quality of life. Evidence is limited to case series and systematic reviews of uncontrolled data; there are no large randomised trials, and no agent is approved specifically for DCS.^[1][4] The ladder escalates from anti-inflammatory antibiotics through retinoids to biologics and surgery.

Stepwise therapy ladder

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Systemic antibiotic therapy

Systemic antibiotics are a long-standing rung of the ladder, though recent reviews position systemic retinoids, not antibiotics, as the first-line systemic therapy for DCS. A comprehensive review lists tetracycline, minocycline, sulfa drugs and rifampin among the older therapies reported effective, alongside topical clindamycin. Doxycycline 100 mg daily for 3 months was the regimen used in a prospective study of alopecic and aseptic nodules of the scalp that also enrolled seven patients with dissecting cellulitis of the scalp for comparison. No antibiotic regimen has been tested in a randomised controlled trial in this disease, so duration and maintenance are individualised.^[8][11][13]

Combination antibiotic therapy

Combination systemic antibiosis has been described in severe disease. An eruptive, purulent case was controlled with oral clindamycin plus metronidazole combined with dermatosurgical removal of individual nodules and isotretinoin 1 mg/kg daily for 3 to 5 months. Rifampin, macrolide antibiotics and topical clindamycin appear in the list of reported-effective agents in a comprehensive review that explicitly compares dissecting cellulitis therapies with those of hidradenitis suppurativa. No dosing schedule for any antibiotic combination has been validated in DCS, so regimens are borrowed from tetrad-sister practice and individualised.^[12][8]

Oral isotretinoin

Oral isotretinoin is the most extensively studied medical treatment for DCS, and recent reviews regard systemic retinoids as the first-line systemic therapy. In a retrospective series of seven men aged 22 to 39 with nodules of the vertex or occiput, isotretinoin 0.75 mg/kg/day for at least nine months produced complete healing of the lesions with good regrowth in all cases (follow-up 16 to 42 months), leading the authors to propose 0.75 mg/kg/day as first-line treatment. A severe eruptive case was controlled with isotretinoin 1 mg/kg daily for 3 to 5 months. Two cautions temper this: a comprehensive review concluded that isotretinoin "seems to provide the best chance at remission" but that the number of reports is small, dosing schedules are variable, long-term follow-up beyond a year is negligible, and treatment failures have been reported; and a systematic review of refractory disease found isotretinoin was the most often reported agent but that the response was limited, with biologics and laser therapy showing a better chance of remission.^{[7][12][13][8][4][1]}

Other systemic agents

• Oral zinc — both low-dose oral zinc and high-dose zinc sulphate 135 to 220 mg three times daily are listed among newer reported-effective therapies in a comprehensive review of the last decade of treatments.
• Dapsone — listed among the older therapies reported effective; evidence is limited to reports, and no DCS-specific dosing has been published.
• Systemic corticosteroids (prednisone) — listed among older therapies reported effective; an option for flares in the absence of controlled data.
• Antiandrogens — reported as an option specifically in women with dissecting cellulitis.^[8]

Biologic therapy for refractory disease

When antibiotics and isotretinoin fail, TNF-alpha inhibitors are the most frequently used and best-evidenced advanced therapy. A systematic review of 46 studies (125 patients) found overall response rates exceeding 80 percent with TNF-alpha inhibitors, with adalimumab and infliximab the most commonly reported agents; the adverse-event rate was 8.3 percent, predominantly mild or moderate. A monocentric series of nine patients treated after failure of conventional treatments recorded a 67 percent reduction in inflammatory nodules, an 88 percent reduction in purulent drainage, and a 45 percent improvement in Dermatology Life Quality Index. A second systematic review of 34 articles (81 patients) found TNF-alpha blockers and interleukin inhibitors — including ustekinumab, secukinumab, guselkumab, risankizumab and tildrakizumab — associated with clinical improvement in most patients with moderate-to-severe disease, especially those who had failed earlier treatments, and reported symptom amelioration with the small molecules apremilast, upadacitinib and baricitinib; certolizumab pegol was suggested as a possible option in pregnancy. Secukinumab achieved almost complete resolution of the dissecting cellulitis manifestations in a published case after isotretinoin, antibiotics and adalimumab had failed.^{[9][10][2][14]}

^{[7] [12] [8] [1] [11] [8] [12] [8] [9]}

Surgical and procedural therapy

• Incision and drainage and intralesional triamcinolone — both listed among older therapies reported effective; drainage decompresses acute abscesses but is not curative.^[8]
• Wide surgical excision — listed among reported therapies; in a systematic review of refractory disease, X-ray epilation and surgical excision demonstrated the best remission rates but can be complicated by serious morbidity, so they are reserved for localised, treatment-resistant disease.^[8][4]
• Laser therapy — hair-removal lasers (694 nm and 800 nm) and the 1064 nm laser are reported in a comprehensive review; a systematic review of refractory disease found laser therapy was used less often than isotretinoin but demonstrated a better chance of remission.^[8][4]
• Photodynamic therapy — the most extensively studied procedural intervention in a systematic review of 110 articles and 417 patients.^[1]
• Radiotherapy — X-ray epilation and modern external beam radiation therapy are reported, with the same serious-morbidity caveat as excision.^[8][4]

Supportive and holistic care

Do not underestimate the burden: pain, odour, discharge, and visible alopecia cause depression, anxiety, and social isolation. Address obesity and smoking (both accelerate tetrad disease), provide psychological support, and consider patient advocacy groups. Serial photography and a patient diary help track flares and treatment response. ^[1]

Specific subtypes and scenarios

Paediatric dissecting cellulitis

DCS is rare in children but described, particularly in boys of African heritage. The critical differential is tinea capitis with kerion — every paediatric boggy scalp lesion needs KOH and fungal culture before any anti-inflammatory or retinoid therapy. Isotretinoid dosing is weight-based and requires careful counselling in adolescents (teratogenicity, mood, growth-plate considerations are debated). Tetracyclines are generally avoided in children under 8 years (dental staining) and under 12 in many guidelines.^[3]

DCS in women

Women are far less commonly affected (sex ratio about 4 to 1 male). Female cases should prompt confirmation of the diagnosis and screening for the tetrad. Pregnancy planning is pivotal because isotretinoin, tetracyclines, and several biologics have restricted use in pregnancy; effective contraception is essential, and biologic choice should weigh pregnancy exposure (e.g. adalimumab has the most reproductive data among TNF inhibitors).^[2]

DCS in the immunocompromised and HIV

DCS may be unusually severe or extensive in HIV-positive patients, and a new severe scalp process in an at-risk individual warrants HIV testing. Management parallels standard care, with attention to drug interactions, opportunistic infection screening, and the immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome after antiretroviral therapy.^[5]

Follicular occlusion tetrad overlap

When DCS coexists with hidradenitis suppurativa, acne conglobata, or pilonidal sinus, treat the most disabling component first and recognise that an agent effective in one (e.g. adalimumab for HS) may benefit another. A multidisciplinary approach (dermatology, general/plastic surgery, psychology) is often needed.^[1]

Complications and pitfalls

Classic pitfalls

• Treating for DCS without excluding tinea capitis — a kerion looks boggy and discharging; starting steroids or retinoids without a KOH test can worsen a fungal infection and is a defensible complaint.
• Missing Marjolin transformation — a non-healing ulcer in a 20-year sinus tract is cancer until proven otherwise by biopsy.^[6]
• Underestimating psychological burden — quality-of-life impairment in tetrad disease is comparable to other chronic skin diseases; screen and refer.
• Assuming antibiotics will cure — antibiotics are anti-inflammatory and suppressive, not curative; relapse on cessation is the rule, and an escalating plan should be set early.
• Neglecting the tetrad — missing a coexistent hidradenitis suppurativa or pilonidal sinus loses an opportunity for unified management.^[1]

Prognosis and disposition

DCS is chronic and relapsing, with no cure; the realistic goal is disease control and quality of life, not eradication. Hair lost to scarring alopecia is permanent. Most patients are managed in the outpatient dermatology setting; surgical excision is reserved for localised refractory disease. Patients with long-standing active sinus tracts carry a small but real lifetime risk of squamous cell carcinoma and need long-term surveillance with a low threshold to biopsy change. Psychological morbidity is substantial and must be addressed in parallel.^[1][3][6]

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Special populations

Skin of colour

DCS predominantly affects people of African descent. Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation, keloid formation, and pseudofolliculitis are more pronounced in skin of colour and influence treatment choice (favour early anti-inflammatory control, counsel on keloid risk before surgery). Laser epilation settings must be adjusted for higher Fitzpatrick skin types to avoid dyspigmentation and burns.^[3]

Pregnancy

Isotretinoin is absolutely contraindicated (severe teratogenicity); tetracyclines are avoided after the first trimester (dental and skeletal effects). If treatment is essential in pregnancy, prefer intralesional corticosteroids and topical agents, and seek specialist advice; adalimumab has the most pregnancy safety data among TNF inhibitors but should be used only when the benefit justifies the risk.^[2]

The anticoagulated and the elderly

Older patients with long-standing DCS are the group at risk of Marjolin transformation; age also raises the threshold for aggressive systemic retinoids and biologics, favouring surgery for localised lesions. Anticoagulation does not specifically modify DCS but increases bleeding risk from intralesional injection, biopsy, and surgery. ^[1]

Exam practice: SAQ, viva, and self-test

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Viva scenarioStandard

Viva — DCS: from bedside to molecular mechanism

Clinical prompt

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Self-test: a 9-year-old boy has a unilateral, boggy, painful, hairless plaque on his scalp with occipital lymphadenopathy. KOH is positive. What is the diagnosis, what should you NOT give, and what is the correct treatment?ShowHide

The diagnosis is tinea capitis with kerion, not dissecting cellulitis (DCS is in young adults, bilateral and chronic, and KOH-negative). Do NOT give systemic corticosteroids or isotretinoin first, and do not assume DCS. Confirm with fungal culture and treat with oral antifungals — griseofulvin (first-line for Microsporum) or terbinafine/itraconazole (for Trichophyton) — for 4 to 8 weeks, with adjunctive antifungal shampoo. A short course of oral corticosteroid is sometimes added to reduce kerion inflammation once antifungal therapy is underway, but only after the diagnosis is secured. The lesson: always KOH and fungal-culture a boggy scalp before labelling it DCS, especially in a child.

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Evidence, guidelines, and regional differences

DCS is orphan in evidence terms: there are no large randomised controlled trials, and recommendations rest on case reports, case series, and systematic reviews of uncontrolled data. No therapy is approved specifically for DCS by the FDA, EMA, or MHRA; most agents are used off-label, borrowed from hidradenitis suppurativa (the same tetrad) where adalimumab is approved.^[1][2][4]

Regional and guideline deltas

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Exam pearls

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The mantra, and the trap that costs marks

DCS is incurable but controllable, and the ladder is borrowed wholesale from its sister disease, hidradenitis suppurativa — which is why recognising the tetrad is worth more marks than memorising any single drug.^[1]

The mantra: tetrad first, tetracycline first, exclude tinea before any retinoid — and biopsy every ulcer that will not heal.^[1][6]

Ward-round test — three stems, thirty seconds each

Stem 1 — the boggy scalp in the young Black man (answer)ShowHide

A 28-year-old Black man has a two-year history of painful boggy nodules on the crown discharging pus from multiple openings, with scarring alopecia and severe truncal acne. Cultures grow coagulase-negative staphylococci. Name the diagnosis and the unifying concept. Dissecting cellulitis of the scalp, and the unifying concept is the follicular occlusion tetrad (DCS, hidradenitis suppurativa, acne conglobata, pilonidal sinus) — shared occlusion, rupture, neutrophilic inflammation and scarring, and largely the same drugs. The commensal cultures are expected: bacteria are secondary, and antibiotics work by anti-inflammatory effect.^[1]

Stem 2 — the boggy scalp in a child (answer)ShowHide

A 9-year-old boy has a unilateral, boggy, painful, hairless plaque on the scalp with occipital lymphadenopathy; KOH is positive. What should you NOT give, and what is the correct treatment? This is tinea capitis with kerion, not DCS. Do not give systemic corticosteroids or isotretinoid first. Treat with oral antifungals — griseofulvin for Microsporum, terbinafine or itraconazole for Trichophyton — for 4 to 8 weeks with adjunctive antifungal shampoo. The lesson every boggy scalp must live by: KOH and fungal-culture before any retinoid or steroid.^[1]

Stem 3 — the ulcer in a 22-year-old sinus tract (answer)ShowHide

A patient returns after 22 years of active dissecting cellulitis with a new ulcer in a sinus tract. What do you do? Biopsy it. Squamous cell carcinoma — Marjolin-type malignant transformation — arises in roughly 1 to 2 per cent of patients with long-standing DCS sinus tracts. A non-healing ulcer in this context is cancer until histology proves otherwise; escalating immunosuppression without a biopsy is the avoidable disaster.^[6]

References15ShowHide

1. [1]Masson R, Jeong CY, Ma E, et al. Treatments for Dissecting Cellulitis of the Scalp: A Systematic Review and Treatment Algorithm Dermatol Ther (Heidelb), 2023.PMID 37740150
2. [2]Heidari N, Ghannadzadeh Kermani Pour R, Farshbafnadi M, et al. A systematic review of tumor necrosis factor-α blockers, anti-interleukins, and small molecule inhibitors for dissecting cellulitis of the scalp treatment Orphanet J Rare Dis, 2025.PMID 40383754
3. [3]Gamissans M, Romaní J, López-Llunell C, et al. Dissecting cellulitis of the scalp: A review on clinical characteristics and management options in a series of 14 patients Dermatol Ther, 2022.PMID 35674720
4. [4]Thomas J, Aguh C Approach to treatment of refractory dissecting cellulitis of the scalp: a systematic review J Dermatolog Treat, 2021.PMID 31348693
5. [5]Scheinfeld N Dissecting Cellulitis Skinmed, 2015.PMID 26380513
6. [6]Maranga A, Ravipati A, Martinez-Escala ME, et al. Marjolin cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma arising in dissecting cellulitis of the scalp JAAD Case Rep, 2024.PMID 39319186
7. [7]Koudoukpo C, Abdennader S, Cavelier-Balloy B, et al. [Dissecting cellulitis of the scalp: a retrospective study of 7 cases confirming the efficacy of oral isotretinoin] Ann Dermatol Venereol, 2014.PMID 25209812
8. [8]Scheinfeld N Dissecting cellulitis (Perifolliculitis Capitis Abscedens et Suffodiens): a comprehensive review focusing on new treatments and findings of the last decade with commentary comparing the therapies and causes of dissecting cellulitis to hidradenitis suppurativa Dermatol Online J, 2014.PMID 24852785
9. [9]Díez-Madueño K, Argüello-Marcos B, Buendía-Castaño D, et al. Biologic Therapies and Small-Molecule Inhibitors for Dissecting Cellulitis of the Scalp: A Systematic Review Dermatol Ther (Heidelb), 2026.PMID 41964799
10. [10]Frechet L, Puzenat E, Charollais R, et al. Dissecting cellulitis of the scalp treated by tumour necrosis factor inhibitors: a case series Eur J Dermatol, 2021.PMID 33648906
11. [11]Abdennader S, Vignon-Pennamen MD, Hatchuel J, Reygagne P Alopecic and aseptic nodules of the scalp (pseudocyst of the scalp): a prospective clinicopathological study of 15 cases Dermatology, 2011.PMID 21099195
12. [12]Tchernev G Folliculitis et perifolliculitis capitis abscedens et suffodiens controlled with a combination therapy: systemic antibiosis (metronidazole plus clindamycin), dermatosurgical approach, and high-dose isotretinoin Indian J Dermatol, 2011.PMID 21772598
13. [13]Mokos M, Šitum M, Masnec IS Dissecting Cellulitis of the Scalp: Linking Pathogenesis to Therapy Biomedicines, 2026.PMID 41898217
14. [14]Schettini N, Marzola E, Pacetti L, et al. A Case of Dissecting Cellulitis of the Scalp, Hidradenitis Suppurativa, and Conglobate Acne Successfully Treated with Secukinumab Skin Appendage Disord, 2024.PMID 38835714
15. [15]Scheinfeld N A case of a patient with stage III familial hidradenitis suppurativa treated with 3 courses of infliximab and died of metastatic squamous cell carcinoma Dermatol Online J, 2014.PMID 24656278