Dermatomyositis

Meet the patient

A 54-year-old woman arrives with a heliotrope rash she blames on "new eyeshadow", violaceous papules over her knuckles, and three months of struggling to rise from a chair and lift her washing onto the line. Her CK is fifteen times normal.^[1][2]

Two questions now decide her workup: is there a muscle and skin syndrome that fits DM? and — because she is over 40 — what is hiding behind it? Gottron papules plus heliotrope rash plus proximal weakness is DM until proven otherwise, and in any adult that means a malignancy screen is mandatory, not optional.^[1][4]

What DM is — and the three things it is not

DM is an autoimmune idiopathic inflammatory myopathy (IIM) defined by pathognomonic cutaneous signs combined with a variable spectrum of muscle inflammation. It is one of the three classic IIMs — alongside polymyositis (PM) and inclusion body myositis (IBM) — and is uniquely characterised by skin and muscle involvement, by complement-mediated microangiopathy (rather than the T-cell cytotoxicity that dominates PM), and by a strong association with autoantibodies, interstitial lung disease, and malignancy.^[1][2][7]

It is not polymyositis with a rash. PM has no skin signs and a fundamentally different mechanism — endomysial CD8-positive T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity against MHC-I-positive myofibres, with no complement microangiopathy. On biopsy, PM shows endomysial inflammation invading non-necrotic fibres; DM shows perifascicular atrophy with C5b-9 on endomysial capillaries.^[1]

It is not lupus with weak muscles. Cutaneous lupus and DM share an interface-dermatitis biopsy and share photosensitivity, but CLE lacks Gottron papules (the most specific single sign of DM), lacks heliotrope rash, and lacks proximal muscle weakness. The skin biopsy alone cannot distinguish them — the clinical features do.^[2]

It is not always weak. Amyopathic and hypomyopathic DM (ADM/CADM) carry the pathognomonic skin signs for six months or more with normal CK and no clinical weakness — and are still dangerous, because anti-MDA5 disease hides here and can kill through RP-ILD.^[3][6]

The operational classification

The subtypes matter because each carries a different organ risk and prognosis.^[5][1]

The EULAR/ACR 2017 classification criteria score variables across muscle weakness, skin signs (heliotrope, Gottron, V-sign, shawl), muscle enzymes, EMG, MRI and biopsy to produce an aggregate probability of IIM (no biopsy cut-off at 55 percent probability; with biopsy at least 90 percent) and a sub-classification into DM, PM, IBM or amyopathic DM.^[1][5]

How common, who, and the malignancy shadow

DM is a rare disease with two incidence peaks — childhood (5 to 15 years) for juvenile DM and adulthood (40 to 60 years) for classic and paraneoplastic DM — with a smaller third peak in the elderly overlapping with IBM and cancer.^[1][5][7]

^[1]

Risk factors include female sex, age (bimodal — children and mid-adult), family or personal history of autoimmune disease, HLA-DRB1*03:01 (adult DM), HLA-DRB1*03 and HLA-DQA1*0301 (JDM), seasonality (JDM clusters in spring and early summer), preceding viral or bacterial infection (parvovirus B19, Coxsackie B, group A streptococcus, hepatitis B or C, HIV), UV light exposure, and underlying malignancy.^[1][2][5]

Pathophysiology — two interlocking pathways

DM is the prototypical humoral and complement-mediated microvasculopathy of muscle and skin. Although T cells and autoantibodies participate, the dominant injury pathway is vascular: complement activation on endomysial capillaries, capillary dropout, ischaemic injury to the perifascicular myofibres, and atrophy. A type I interferon signature in skin and muscle generates a self-amplifying inflammatory loop that maintains disease.^[1][2][7]

Pathway 1 — the type I interferon signature. An unknown trigger (viral PAMP, tumour antigen, UV light) activates plasmacytoid dendritic cells, which release IFN-alpha and IFN-beta, upregulating interferon-stimulated genes (MX1, IFIT1, ISG15, IFI44L). MHC-I is upregulated on myofibres (normally MHC-I negative), making them visible to CD8-positive T cells; keratinocyte MHC-I upregulation produces interface dermatitis. The IFN signature is most intense in anti-MDA5 DM (aggressive skin and lung) and anti-TIF1-gamma DM (paraneoplastic, tumour driving the IFN).^[2][3][7]

Pathway 2 — complement-mediated microangiopathy. An autoantibody (or immune complex) binds an endomysial capillary antigen, C1q activates the classical pathway, C3 cleaves, and the C5b-9 membrane attack complex (MAC) assembles on the capillary endothelium. MAC punches pores in endothelial cells, causing microvascular necrosis, capillary dropout and luminal narrowing; the perifascicular rim — the watershed territory, last fed and first starved — becomes ischaemic.^[1][7]

The outcome is perifascicular atrophy — small, angulated, MHC-I-positive myofibres at the edge of the fascicle. This is the histological hallmark that distinguishes DM from PM. The skin shows an identical interface dermatitis with C5b-9 on dermal vessels, because skin and muscle share the same microvascular architecture and the same vulnerability to type I IFN and complement.^[1][7]

Anti-MDA5 is a gain-of-function autoantibody that binds MDA5 (a cytosolic viral RNA sensor), amplifying type I IFN production — explaining the most aggressive DM phenotype. Anti-TIF1-gamma recognises a tumour-suppressor, suggesting a paraneoplastic IFN drive from an underlying malignancy.^[3][6]

The cutaneous signs — the dermatologist's gateway

Skin signs precede or coincide with muscle weakness; in amyopathic DM they dominate and the muscle disease is subclinical. The tempo is subacute (weeks to months) in classic DM, acute in juvenile DM, and may be indolently chronic in amyopathic DM.^[1][2][4]

The classic trap: Gottron papules (MCP joints) and heliotrope rash (upper eyelids) are the only two pathognomonic cutaneous signs — the rest are characteristic but not pathognomonic. If an examiner asks for the single most specific sign, the answer is Gottron papules.^[2]

The muscle component — when present

The distribution is symmetric proximal weakness — shoulder girdle (deltoid, supraspinatus and infraspturns, scapular stabilisers) and hip girdle (iliopsoas, gluteus, quadriceps).^[1]

Symptoms are difficulty rising from a low chair, climbing stairs, lifting arms overhead, combing hair. Facial and extraocular muscles are usually spared. Dyspnoea signals diaphragm or intercostal involvement; dysphagia signals cricopharyngeal or upper oesophageal striated muscle; dysphonia signals laryngeal weakness. Examination shows reduced MRC power (typically 3 to 4 out of 5), preserved reflexes and sensation, no fasciculations.^[1][4][7]

Other organ involvement

Interstitial lung disease (ILD) occurs in about 20 to 40 percent overall, up to 90 percent in anti-MDA5 and 70 percent in anti-Jo-1. It may be chronic progressive (antisynthetase) or rapidly progressive (anti-MDA5 RP-ILD, with 6-month mortality of 40 to 60 percent).^[3][6]

Cardiac involvement — arrhythmias (conduction block), myocarditis, pericarditis — is often subclinical and contributes to mortality. Gastrointestinal involvement includes dysphagia, reflux and dysmotility; in JDM, visceral vasculopathy with GI ulceration, perforation or pneumatosis intestinalis. Arthritis is non-erosive, especially in antisynthetase syndrome. Constitutional features — fever (notably antisynthetase), weight loss, fatigue — are common.^[1]

Differential Diagnosis — the face-off

The highest-yield distinctions are DM versus its three IIM siblings and versus cutaneous lupus. The discriminator beneath each is the mechanism and the single clinical sign that splits them.^[1][2][7]

^[1]

The discriminator line: skin signs plus perifascicular atrophy plus C5b-9 on capillaries equals DM; endomysial CD8-positive T cells equals PM; distal asymmetric weakness in an older adult equals IBM; very high CK with myonecrosis equals IMNM.^[1]

Clinical & Bedside Assessment

The focused examination in suspected DM must cover skin, muscle, lungs, joints, and the systemic screen for malignancy and ILD.^[1][4][7]

The skin examination. Inspect the face for heliotrope rash and periorbital erythema; the hands for Gottron papules (MCP and IP joints), Gottron sign, mechanic's hands, and nailfold capillary change (use a dermatoscope or a handheld ophthalmoscope at plus 20 D); the trunk for shawl, V and holster signs; the extensor surfaces for erythema, papules and ulceration. Palpate for calcinosis, especially in juvenile DM.^[1]

The muscle examination. Inspect for wasting (deltoid, quadriceps). Test power at shoulder abduction, elbow flexion and extension, hip flexion, knee extension, and neck flexion, using MRC grade. Special tests: Gower sign (climbing up the legs when rising from the floor); standing-from-chair test; neck flexor weakness (sensitive, often weakened early); and respiratory reserve — FVC and sniff nasal inspiratory pressure.^[1]

The systemic and lung screen. Auscultate for bibasal "Velcro" crackles (ILD). Palpate lymph nodes (juvenile DM and paraneoplastic screening). Cardiovascular exam for rate, rhythm and blood pressure. Joint exam for arthritis. Abdominal exam for visceromegaly. Check for Raynaud's.^[1]

Investigations — clinicopathological, antibody-informed

DM is a clinicopathological diagnosis. The workup defines the extent of muscle disease, the antibody profile (which predicts organ risk and prognosis), the lung screen, the malignancy screen, and the histological proof when needed.^[1][4][7][5]

Muscle enzymes. CK is the most sensitive enzyme — up to 50 times ULN in classic DM, normal in ADM. Aldolase is elevated when CK is normal (useful in juvenile DM and ADM). AST, ALT and LDH are elevated in active myositis but confounded by hepatotoxic drugs. Use troponin-I (cardiac isoform) for true cardiac involvement; troponin-T may be falsely elevated in chronic myositis.^[1][4]

Myositis-specific antibodies (MSA) stratify the phenotype — this is the highest-yield table on the page.^[1]

Other serology. ANA is positive in 60 to 80 percent of DM (often speckled or nucleolar); anti-dsDNA and anti-Smith are usually negative (distinguishing from SLE). ESR and CRP are usually modestly elevated but can be very high in anti-MDA5 DM.^[1]

EMG shows a myopathic pattern — short-duration, small-amplitude, polyphasic motor unit potentials with early recruitment, fibrillation potentials and positive sharp waves — in proximal muscles symmetrically. Muscle MRI (T2 or STIR hyperintensity = oedema in active disease; T1 = chronic atrophy and fatty replacement) guides biopsy site and detects subclinical involvement in ADM.^[1][7]

Muscle biopsy — the diagnostic gold standard

Perifascicular atrophy is the histological hallmark — small, angulated, basophilic myofibres at the periphery of the fascicle, caused by C5b-9-mediated microangiopathy, not by CD8-positive T-cell invasion as in polymyositis.^[1][7]

H and E also shows perivascular, perimysial inflammation with CD4-positive T cells and CD20-positive B cells, and scattered necrotic and regenerating fibres. Immunohistochemistry shows C5b-9 (MAC) deposition on endomysial capillaries (diagnostic of complement microangiopathy), diffuse sarcolemmal MHC class I upregulation (especially perifascicular), and MxA positivity in the perifascicular rim (the IFN signature). Skin biopsy shows interface dermatitis identical to cutaneous lupus.^[2]

The ILD screen

In any DM patient — especially amyopathic DM — screen aggressively for ILD, because RP-ILD is the leading cause of death and can declare before weakness. PFTs (FVC, TLC, DLCO — a falling DLCO and FVC over weeks is the alarm), HRCT chest (bilateral basal subpleural reticular opacities, traction bronchiectasis, ground-glass; in anti-MDA5 RP-ILD, rapidly progressive consolidation with or without pneumomediastinum), 6-minute walk test with oximetry, and echocardiogram if pulmonary hypertension is suspected.^[3][6]

The malignancy screen — MANDATORY in adults

Because about 15 to 30 percent of adult DM is paraneoplastic, age- and sex-appropriate cancer screening is mandatory at diagnosis and annually for 3 to 5 years.^[1][2][4]

All adults: CT chest, abdomen and pelvis with contrast; colonoscopy (age-appropriate, often 45 or older); FBC, ESR, CRP, LDH, transaminases; PSA (men over 50); CA-125 plus transvaginal ultrasound (women, especially anti-TIF1-gamma and anti-NXP2 positive); mammography. Asian populations (East and Southeast Asian): nasopharyngoscopy plus or minus MRI nasopharynx; EBV serology — nasopharyngeal carcinoma is the leading paraneoplastic malignancy here. Repeat annually for 3 to 5 years; the window of highest risk is the first 12 months. Anti-TIF1-gamma and anti-NXP2 are the strongest individual predictors.^[1][2][3]

Management — Resuscitation & Acute Care

DM is rarely a true resuscitation emergency, but three scenarios are.^[1]

1. Anti-MDA5 rapidly progressive ILD (RP-ILD): admit, often to HDU or ICU, and start early combined immunosuppression — high-dose systemic glucocorticoids plus a calcineurin inhibitor and/or cyclophosphamide — because MDA5-DM responds poorly to conventional glucocorticoid therapy alone.^[3][10]
2. Bulbar or diaphragmatic weakness with respiratory failure: ICU admission for ventilatory support (non-invasive or invasive) and NG or PEG feeding; high-dose IVIG is an effective option in refractory disease.^[9][5]
3. Severe gastrointestinal vasculopathy (ulceration, bleeding, perforation): resuscitation, surgical co-management and early intensive immunosuppression — gastrointestinal involvement denotes severe disease with substantial mortality.^[13]

Management — Definitive — staged and antibody-informed

DM management is staged and antibody-informed.^[4]

Muscle disease — induction

Glucocorticoids remain the first-line therapy. Oral prednisolone is started at high dose and tapered slowly over months once muscle strength recovers, rather than stopped abruptly; long-term adverse effects drive the push to steroid-free maintenance. In severe, organ-threatening disease, high-dose systemic glucocorticoids are given with concurrent immunosuppression from the outset.^[11][10]

Steroid-sparing immunosuppressants are commonly used in combination with glucocorticoids to enhance efficacy and reduce steroid dependence — methotrexate, azathioprine and mycophenolate mofetil are the standard agents. Calcineurin inhibitors (ciclosporin or tacrolimus) feature prominently in anti-MDA5 regimens.^[11][10]

IVIG (2 g/kg per month) is a safe and effective treatment for refractory dermatomyositis — in the pivotal double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial, monthly high-dose IVIG infusions for three months significantly improved muscle strength and neuromuscular symptoms in treatment-resistant disease.^[9][5]

Refractory disease: rituximab was tested in the randomised, placebo-phase RIM trial of refractory adult and juvenile DM and adult PM. The primary end point (time to meeting the IMACS definition of improvement) did not differ between early and late rituximab, but 83 percent of refractory patients met the definition of improvement during follow-up, supporting a role for B-cell depletion in selected refractory cases. JAK inhibitors are an emerging option for treatment-resistant DM, though they carry significant safety concerns including increased infection risk.^[8][11]

Cutaneous disease

Cutaneous disease is treated in parallel with systemic therapy and tends to be chronic and more recalcitrant than muscle disease. Photoprotection, topical corticosteroids, topical calcineurin inhibitors, antimalarials such as hydroxychloroquine, and other topical and systemic agents form the treatment ladder for the often refractory rash — most evidence comes from case series or expert opinion rather than randomised trials. Dermatologists play a central role in ongoing skin-directed management.^[12][4]

Anti-MDA5 RP-ILD — a separate, urgent pathway

Anti-MDA5 RP-ILD follows a separate, urgent pathway because it responds poorly to conventional glucocorticoid and immunosuppressant therapy and carries a poor overall prognosis. A combined regimen of high-dose systemic glucocorticoids plus a calcineurin inhibitor and/or cyclophosphamide, administered early, is associated with the highest survival rates in RP-ILD. Plasma exchange can be added for refractory disease, and tofacitinib and rituximab may have a place in the therapeutic armamentarium. Early detection and treatment are of extreme importance given the risk of rapid decline.^[10][3]

Malignancy-associated DM

Treat the malignancy first — this often improves the DM. Continue DM treatment concurrently, and repeat malignancy screening annually for 3 to 5 years, especially in the first 12 months.^[1][4]

Calcinosis (juvenile DM)

There is no proven medical therapy. Surgical excision if symptomatic (pain, ulceration, infection). Investigational: bisphosphonates, probenecid, sodium thiosulphate, TNF inhibitors. Prevention: early aggressive treatment of DM reduces calcinosis risk.^[1][5]

The antibody prognosis ladder

DM prognosis is antibody-driven — learn the ladder from best to worst.^[1]

Disposition. Classic DM without ILD is managed as an outpatient with urgent rheumatology and dermatology review. DM with mild ILD: outpatient with PFT and HRCT surveillance every 3 to 6 months. DM with progressive ILD (falling FVC, falling DLCO): admission and aggressive combination therapy. DM with RP-ILD or anti-MDA5: ICU or HDU. DM with dysphagia or aspiration: speech and language therapy, NG or PEG feeding. JDM with visceral vasculopathy: emergency admission, surgical co-management.^[1][3][4]

Complications & Pitfalls

Disease complications. ILD (chronic or rapidly progressive) — respiratory failure is the leading cause of DM mortality. Cardiac disease (conduction, myocarditis, pericarditis, heart failure). Dysphagia, dysphonia, aspiration pneumonia. Calcinosis cutis in JDM (chronic painful ulceration, secondary infection). Vasculopathy in JDM (GI ulceration or perforation, CNS vasculopathy with stroke-like events). Secondary infection from chronic immunosuppression and skin breakdown. Malignancy in 15 to 30 percent of adults.^[1]

Treatment complications. Corticosteroids: Cushingoid, hyperglycaemia, hypertension, osteoporosis, cataract, infection, adrenal suppression on taper. Methotrexate: hepatotoxicity, marrow suppression, pneumonitis, mucositis, teratogenicity. Azathioprine: marrow suppression (especially TPMT-deficient — test before use), hepatotoxicity, infection. Mycophenolate: teratogenic (avoid in pregnancy). Ciclosporin and tacrolimus: nephrotoxicity, hypertension. Cyclophosphamide: haemorrhagic cystitis, bladder cancer, infertility. Rituximab: infusion reactions, hepatitis B reactivation (screen), PML (rare), hypogammaglobinaemia, late-onset neutropenia. IVIG: aseptic meningitis, thrombosis, acute kidney injury, anaphylaxis in IgA deficiency (screen).^[1]

Special Populations

Pregnancy. Pre-conception: switch methotrexate and mycophenolate to azathioprine and plan quiescent disease for at least 6 months. During pregnancy: prednisolone (avoid fluorinated steroids unless for fetal lung maturation), azathioprine, hydroxychloroquine, IVIG are all safe. Continue PFT and fetal monitoring. Post-partum flare is common — anticipate and treat aggressively. Multidisciplinary management with obstetrics, rheumatology, dermatology, neonatology.^[1][4]

Elderly. High paraneoplastic risk — malignancy screening is mandatory and high-yield. The differential with IBM is critical: DM is subacute, proximal, symmetric, steroid-responsive; IBM is chronic, distal, asymmetric, steroid-resistant. Comorbidity limits immunosuppression choices; hydroxychloroquine and IVIG are safer than cyclophosphamide. Falls risk from proximal weakness plus visual and vestibular issues.^[1][2]

Children (JDM). Distinct from adult DM: calcinosis and vasculopathy dominate; malignancy is rare. Treat actively and early to prevent calcinosis and chronic disability. Steroid plus methotrexate is first-line; IVIG for refractory; rituximab and JAK inhibitors for further refractory disease. The ACR/EULAR 2016 response criteria define improvement.^[5]

Immunocompromised and HIV. DM can occur in HIV but is uncommon; the differential includes HIV myopathy (proximal weakness but no skin signs), drug-induced myopathy (AZT), and opportunistic infection. Treatment of DM in HIV requires caution with immunosuppression; rituximab is relatively safe. Screen for hepatitis B and C before rituximab; HCV-associated DM may respond to direct-acting antivirals.^[1]

Evidence, Guidelines & Controversies

The EULAR/ACR 2017 classification criteria for adult and juvenile IIM (Bottai, Lundberg et al.) are the modern diagnostic framework. The RIM trial (Oddis 2013) of rituximab in refractory myositis missed its primary endpoint at 44 weeks (placebo crossover design) but a secondary analysis showed benefit; rituximab is now widely used. Lu and Peng's 2024 review of anti-MDA5 DM is the current reference for the lethal phenotype.^[1][3][5]

^{[1] [1] [1] [1] [1]}

Current controversies. Is a muscle biopsy always necessary? EULAR/ACR 2017 allows over 55 percent probability without biopsy and over 90 percent with; in classic DM with typical skin and EMG, biopsy may not change management, but in atypical or suspected IBM/IMNM it is mandatory. Rituximab positioning remains debated after RIM. JAK inhibitors have growing evidence, especially for anti-MDA5 and refractory cutaneous disease, but licensing is off-label.^[1][4]

The mantra and the memory devices

The mantra: skin and muscle together, screen the lungs, screen for cancer, treat the antibody.^[1]

^{[1] [2] [1] [1] [1]}

Ward-round test

A 45-year-old with Gottron papules, heliotrope rash, and proximal weakness. CK is 3000. What two things must you do beyond immunosuppression?ShowHide

Screen for ILD and screen for malignancy. Send myositis-specific antibodies (anti-MDA5, anti-TIF1-gamma, anti-NXP2, anti-Mi-2, anti-Jo-1), PFTs (FVC, DLCO), HRCT chest, and an age- and sex-appropriate malignancy screen (CT chest, abdomen and pelvis, mammography, colonoscopy, CA-125 plus transvaginal ultrasound, PSA). The antibody result redirects the whole workup. ^[1][4]

Amyopathic DM with normal CK, but new dyspnoea and a falling DLCO. The antibody is anti-MDA5. What is the emergency?ShowHide

Rapidly progressive interstitial lung disease (RP-ILD) — the lethal phenotype of anti-MDA5 DM, with 6-month mortality of 40 to 60 percent untreated. Admit (HDU or ICU), give IV methylprednisolone pulses then combination immunosuppression (calcineurin inhibitor plus cyclophosphamide plus or minus rituximab), and refer early for lung transplantation if irreversible. Never assume amyopathic DM is "safe." ^[3][6]

A 60-year-old man with new DM tests positive for anti-TIF1-gamma. Why does the antibody change the workup?ShowHide

Anti-TIF1-gamma is the strongest single predictor of paraneoplastic DM — about 50 percent of anti-TIF1-gamma-positive adults have cancer. Intensify the malignancy screen (CT chest, abdomen and pelvis, plus targeted tests by age and sex) and repeat annually for 3 to 5 years, because the cancer may declare itself in the first 12 months. Treat the malignancy first; the DM often improves. ^[1][2]

The biopsy shows interface dermatitis. Is it DM or cutaneous lupus?ShowHide

The biopsy cannot tell them apart — the clinical features do. Look for Gottron papules (over MCP and IP joints) and heliotrope rash: both are pathognomonic for DM and absent in CLE. Add proximal weakness, elevated CK, and the myositis antibody panel to settle it. The skin histology is identical. ^[2]

References13ShowHide

1. [1]Lundberg IE, Fujimoto M, Vencovsky J, et al. Idiopathic inflammatory myopathies Nat Rev Dis Primers, 2021.PMID 34857798
2. [2]DeWane ME, Waldman R, Lu J. Dermatomyositis: Clinical features and pathogenesis J Am Acad Dermatol, 2020.PMID 31279808
3. [3]Lu X, Peng Q, Wang G. Anti-MDA5 antibody-positive dermatomyositis: pathogenesis and clinical progress Nat Rev Rheumatol, 2024.PMID 38057474
4. [4]Waldman R, DeWane ME, Lu J. Dermatomyositis: Diagnosis and treatment J Am Acad Dermatol, 2020.PMID 31279813
5. [5]Ashton C, Paramalingam S, Stevenson B, et al. Idiopathic inflammatory myopathies: a review Intern Med J, 2021.PMID 34155760
6. [6]Castro-Molina SA, Méndez-Flores S. [Anti-MDA5 dermatomyositis. Literature review] Rev Med Inst Mex Seguro Soc, 2023.PMID 36542793
7. [7]Tanboon J, Nishino I. Update on dermatomyositis Curr Opin Neurol, 2022.PMID 35942671
8. [8]Oddis CV, Reed AM, Aggarwal R, et al. Rituximab in the treatment of refractory adult and juvenile dermatomyositis and adult polymyositis: a randomized, placebo-phase trial Arthritis Rheum, 2013.PMID 23124935
9. [9]Dalakas MC, Illa I, Dambrosia JM, et al. A controlled trial of high-dose intravenous immune globulin infusions as treatment for dermatomyositis N Engl J Med, 1993.PMID 8247075
10. [10]McPherson M, Economidou S, Liampas A, et al. Management of MDA-5 antibody positive clinically amyopathic dermatomyositis associated interstitial lung disease: A systematic review Semin Arthritis Rheum, 2022.PMID 35134633
11. [11]Guo J, Wang W, Huang A, et al. Pharmacological Strategies in Dermatomyositis: Current Treatments and Future Directions Med Sci Monit, 2024.PMID 39275800
12. [12]Cobos GA, Femia A, Vleugels RA. Dermatomyositis: An Update on Diagnosis and Treatment Am J Clin Dermatol, 2020.PMID 32096127
13. [13]Matas-Garcia A, Milisenda JC, Espinosa G, et al. Gastrointestinal involvement in dermatomyositis Diagnostics (Basel), 2022.PMID 35626355