Anaes · Invasive monitoring

Invasive monitoring

Also known as Arterial line · Central venous pressure · Cardiac output monitoring · Goal-directed therapy · TOE · BIS

Invasive monitoring provides the continuous, real-time, beat-to-beat measurement of the haemodynamic variables that the non-invasive cuff and the pulse oximeter cannot. The framework rests on four exam-critical ideas: the arterial line gives the continuous, accurate blood pressure and the waveform analysis (the pulse contour); the central venous pressure, though much debated, gives the right-heart filling estimate and the access for the drugs; the cardiac output monitoring (the thermodilution, the pulse contour analysis, the oesophageal Doppler, the TOE) provides the flow and the volume responsiveness that underpin the goal-directed therapy; and the depth-of-anaesthesia monitoring (the BIS, the entropy) titrates the hypnotic depth. Built on the CVP measurement review (Lloyd-Donald 2025), the non-invasive BP accuracy meta-analysis (Lischker 2026), the arterial monitoring in the elderly study (Kane 2026), the personalised haemodynamic management review (Wichmann 2026), and the passive-leg-raise prediction meta-analysis (Monnet 2016).